Borago officinalis - Common Borage

Family: Boraginaceae (Borage family) ^[E-flora]

Other names: Starflower ^{[HMI Stockey]}

"Borago officinalis is a ANNUAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft) by 0.3 m (1ft in) at a medium rate.
It is hardy to zone (UK) 7 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from Jun to October, and the seeds ripen from Jul to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees.It is noted for attracting wildlife.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, prefers well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought." ^[PFAF]

"General Annual herb from a taproot, stiff-hairy or bristly, with cucumber-scented juice; stems ascending to erect, usually branching above, 20-70 cm tall." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

"Habitat / Range Dry to moist waste places in the steppe and lower montane zones; rare in S BC; introduced from Europe." ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Status: Exotic ^[E-flora]

Hazards

"Long-term use is not recommended (AHP). Not approved (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports borage contains hepatotoxic and carcinogenic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (AEH). “Effective July 1996, the AHP Board of Trustees recommends that all products with botanical ingredient(s) which contain toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, including Borago officinalis, display the following cautionary statement on the label: For external use only. Do not apply to broken or abraded skin. Do not use when nursing.” (AHP). Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) have genotoxic, carcinogenic, and hepatotoxic activity (CAN). Because of the PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN). Swiss researchers report at least seven PAs from the herb, at levels above those permitted in Germany (>1 ppm). Seeds reportedly contain even higher quantities of alkaloids (De Smet et al., 1993). Tannins have astringent activities (PHR). Mucilage acts as a sequestering agent (PHR). The GLA in the seed oil may have been positive effects if divorced from the potential of PA toxicity." ^{[HMH Duke]}

"Evening primrose oil is recommended to be used with caution in epileptic patients, especially in those with schizophrenia and/or those taking phenothiazines (see Evening Primrose); on the basis that borage oil, like evening primrose oil, also contains high concentrations of gamolenic acid, borage oil should also be used with caution in these patient groups. In view of the known toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloid constituents, excessive or prolonged ingestion of borage should be avoided. In particular, infusions (e.g. herbal teas) containing borage should be avoided." ^[HerbalMed3]

Borage Oil: "No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages." ^[PDR]

Borage Leaf: "Even though the hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic pyrrolizidine alkaloid content is small, the drug should not be administered. External use may present less of a potential for problems." ^[PDR]

"Drug interactions None documented. However, the potential for preparations of borage to interact with other medicines administered concurrently, particularly those with similar or opposing effects, should be considered." ^[HerbalMed3] "Evening primrose oil contains linoleic acid and gamolenic acid, which are the main active constituents implicated in its interactions. Starflower oil also contains these constituents, and is therefore expected to interact in the same way." ^{[HMI Stockey]}

"Pregnancy and lactation In view of the documented pyrrolizidine constituents and lack of toxicity data, borage should not be used during pregnancy or lactation." ^[HerbalMed3]

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids

"The plant, but not the oil obtained from the seeds, contains small amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids that can cause liver damage and liver cancer[238]. These alkaloids are present in too small a quantity to be harmful unless you make borage a major part of your diet, though people with liver problems would be wise to avoid using the leaves or flowers of this plant[K]." ^[PFAF]

"Starflower leaves contain potentially hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids including lycopsamine, intermedine and their derivatives." ^{[HMI Stockey]}

Edible Uses

• Leaves
  • "Raw or cooked[2, 5, 7, 14, 115, 183]. They can be used as a pot-herb or be added to salads[4]. They are also added whole as a flavouring to various drinks such as Pimms and wine-based drinks[238]. The leaves are rich in potassium and calcium, they have a salty cucumber flavour[200]. Very hairy, the whole leaves have an unpleasant feeling in the mouth and so they are best chopped up finely and added to other leaves when eaten in a salad[K]. The leaves should always be used fresh, because they lose their flavour and colour if dried[244]." ^[PFAF] "Borage has a taste similar to cucumber" ^[PDR]
  • "The leaves of borage are used raw in salads, steamed as a tea, or cooked in vinegar as a vegetable. Common borage is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant and as a pot herb" ^[MTNS] "Borage is occasionally used in salads and soups." ^[HerbalMed3]
    
• Flowers
  • "Raw. They are used as a decorative garnish on salads and summer fruit drinks[2, 5, 7, 14, 183]. The flowers are very nice, both to look at and to taste with a sweet slightly cucumber-like flavour[K]. A refreshing tea is made from the leaves and/or the flowers[21, 183]." ^[PFAF]
    Dye: "An edible blue dye can be obtained from the flowers. It is used to colour vinegar[183]." ^[PFAF]
    
• Stems
  • "The dried stems are used for flavouring beverages[183]." ^[PFAF]
    
• Seeds
  • "The seed yields 30% oil, 20% of which is gamma-linolenic acid[141]. Total yields are 0.35 - 0.65 tonnes per hectare[141]. Unfortunately, the seed ripens intermittently over a period of time and falls from the plant when it is ripe, this makes harvesting the seeds in quantity very difficult[K]." ^[PFAF]
    

Other Uses

• Repellent
  • "The growing plant is said to repel insects[14]." ^[PFAF]
    
• Dye
  • "A blue dye is obtained from the flowers[7]. This turns pink on contact with acids[238]." ^[PFAF]
    

Medicinal Uses

"Borage is a fairly common domestic herbal remedy that has been used since ancient times[244]. It has a particularly good reputation for its beneficial affect on the mind, being used to dispel melancholy and induce euphoria[244]. It is a soothing saline, diuretic herb that soothes damaged or irritated tissues[238]" ^[PFAF] "Borage is stated to possess diaphoretic, expectorant, tonic, antiinflammatory and galactogogue properties.(3) Traditionally, borage has been used to treat many ailments including fevers, coughs and depression.(3,G42, G64) Borage is also reputed to act as a restorative agent on the adrenal cortex.(3) Borage oil (starflower oil) is used as an alternative source to evening primrose oil for gamolenic acid." ^[HerbalMed3] "The medicinal parts are the dried Borage flowers and the dried or fresh foliage, stems and leaves." ^[PDR]

• Leaves/Flowers
  • The leaves, and to a lesser extent the flowers, are demulcent, diaphoretic, depurative, mildly diuretic, emollient, expectorant, febrifuge, lenitive and mildly sedative[4, 7, 9, 14, 201, 238]." ^[PFAF]
    "Infusions of the leaves have traditionally been used for fevers and coughs but it is not recommended that starflower leaves are taken internally, especially if fresh, because they contain small amounts of the hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. The leaves have also been used as an emollient poultice." ^{[HMI Stockey]}
  • "Unproven Uses: In folk medicine, Borage is used as a sequestering and mucilaginous agent for coughs and throat illnesses and as a bronchial treatment. It is also used as an anti-inflammatory agent for kidney and bladder disorders, as an astringent and to treat rheumatism. Preparations using Borage are also used for blood purification and dehydration; the prevention of chest and peritoneal inflammation and rheumatism of the joints; as a pain-relieving, cardiotonic, sedative, sudorific; as a performance-enhancing agent; and for phlebitis and menopausal complaints." ^[PDR]
  • Effects: "The tannins in Borage leaves have an astringent effect and the mucins a sequestering effect." ^[PDR]
    
  • Externally: Externally it is used as a poultice for inflammatory swellings[4, 7]. " ^[PFAF]
    
  • Harvesting: "The leaves are harvested in late spring and the summer as the plant comes into flower." [238] ^[PFAF]
    
  • Preservation: "They can be used fresh or dried but should not be stored for more than one year because they soon lose their medicinal properties[238]." ^[PFAF] Storage: The drug should be protected from light and moisture." ^[PDR]
  • "Dosages (Borage) — 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (APA; PNC); 1 (300 mg) softgel containing 24% GLA (APA); 2 (5 ml) spoonfuls dry herb/cup water 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml tincture 3 ×/day (CAN); 10 g leaf and/or flower/liter water for bronchosis and fever (JFM)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
    
• Seeds
• "The seeds are a rich source of gamma-linolenic acid, this oil helps to regulate the hormonal systems and lowers blood pressure[238]. It is used both internally and externally, helping to relieve skin complaints and pre-menstrual tension[238]. Used for the treatment of phlebitis (inflammation of the veins) [301]." ^[PFAF]
  Oil: "Borage oil is the fatty oil of the seeds of Borago officinalis. Borage leaves are the dried leaves and inflorescence of Borago officinalis. The herb most often grows wild, but is cultivated on a small scale in Yugoslavia, Rumania, Bulgaria and Turkey. Borage is harvested during the flowering period. Due to the plant's very high water content, it should be artificially dried at 40^oC." ^[PDR]
  • "Borage oil (starflower oil) is an alternative to evening primrose as a source of Y - linolenic acid. Traditional herbal uses for borage include the treatment of arthritis, chest congestion with or without cough, inflammation, sore throat, depression, seborrheic dermatitis, and menopausal symptoms. Borage oil is a supplement increasing used by older patients for the treatment of premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, skin disorders, and rheumatoid arthritis. 2 Borage oil is a traditional treatment for a hangover. 3" ^[MTNS] "The oil is used for neurodermatitis and as a food supplement." ^[PDR]
  • Effects: "The drug acts as an astringent and as a sequestering agent."^[PDR]
    
  • Dosage: "Clinical trials suggest that borage oil is a relatively safe dietary supplement in daily doses of 500 – 720 mg. In these studies, daily doses of borage oil administered as 500 - mg borage capsules 5 or 720 - mg Y - linoleic acid in gelatin capsules 11 were well tolerated." ^[MTNS] "Mode of Administration: In capsules, sometimes in combination with vitamins." ^[PDR] How Supplied: Capsules — 500mg, 1000 mg"^[PDR]

CLINICAL RESPONSE
"In a study of 80 patients treated with 500 mg borage oil daily for 24 weeks, there were no definite herb - related adverse effects. One patient was withdrawn from the study for headache, diarrhea, and vomiting, but these effects could not be causally linked to borage oil." ^[MTNS]
"There are few data including case reports on the toxicity of borage or borage oil." ^[MTNS]
"A case report associated the development of atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, and gastrointestinal distress in a 72 - year - old woman, who drank tea from leaves that she thought were borage. 1 Subsequent laboratory analysis indicated that she confused borage leaves for foxglove, and thus she probably had digitoxin poisoning." ^[MTNS]

"Alkaloids Pyrrolizidine-type. Lycopsamine, intermedine, acetyllycopsamine, acetylintermedine, amabiline, supinine and thesinine (unsaturated).(1,2) Concentrations reported as 0.01% and 2– 10ppm for commercial dried samples. Alkaloid concentrations reportedly the same for fresh and dried samples; fresh samples revealed alkaloids as the free base in the roots and mainly as Noxides in the leaves." ^[HerbalMed3]
"Mucilages 11.1%. Yielding glucose, galactose and arabinose." ^[HerbalMed3]
"Oil Rich in fatty acids, in particular gamolenic acid." ^[HerbalMed3]
"Other constituents Acids (acetic, lactic, malic, silicic), cyanogenetic compounds and tannins (up to 3%)." ^[HerbalMed3]

Borage Leaf
"Pyrrolizidine alkaloids: supinin, lycopsamin, 7-acetyl-lycopsamin, intermedin, 7-acetyl- intermedine, amabiline, thesinine" ^[PDR]
"Silicic acid (to some extent water-soluble)" ^[PDR]
Mucilages ^[PDR]
Tannins ^[PDR]

Borage Oil
Constituents of borage oil include acids (acetic, lactic, malic silicic), alkaloids, fatty acids ( y - linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, saturated fatty acids), mucilages, tannins, and saponins." ^[MTNS] "Fatty oil: chief fatty acid is gamma-linolenic acid (17-25%), linoleic acid" ^[PDR]

Linoleic, linolenic, and oleic acids comprise about 75% of the total fatty acids in borage oil. 9 y - Linolenic acid is an essential ... polyunsaturated fatty acid that also occurs in evening primrose ( Oenothera biennis L.) and black currant seed ( Ribes nigrum L.). This compound is one of at least 79 triacylglycerols present in borage oil..." ^[MTNS]

"The oil from starflower seeds contains the essential fatty acids of the omega-6 series, linoleic acid (about 30 to 41%) and gamolenic acid (gamma-linolenic acid, about 17 to 27%). Other fatty acids include oleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid." ^{[HMI Stockey]}

"In addition, borage oil contains small amounts ( < 10 ppm dry weight leaves) of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (e.g., amabiline, intermedine, lycopsamine, supinine), which are potentially hepatohepatotoxic. As a result of the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, the German Federal Health Agency limits the consumption of unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids to <1 ug daily. Borage oils products are certified as being free of unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids when the unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloid content is < 0.5 – 1 ug/g." ^[MTNS]

"Activities (Borage) — Adrenocorticostimulant (f; APA; CAN); Analgesic (f; PHR; PH2); Antiinflammatory (1; APA; CAN; FAD; PH2); Antipyretic (f; CRC; EFS; FAD; WO2); Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Aperient (f; CRC); Astringent (1; APA; PHR; PH2); Carcinogenic (1; APA; CAN); Cardiotonic (f; PHR; PH2); Collyrium (f; JFM); Demulcent (1; CAN; CRC; EFS); Depurative (f; CRC; EFS; PH2); Diaphoretic (f; CAN; CRC; EFS; JFM; PHR; PH2); Diuretic (1; APA; FAD; PNC); Emollient (f; CRC; EFA; HHB; PNC); Expectorant (f; CAN); Genotoxic (1; CAN); Hepatocarcinogenic (1; APA; PHR); Hepatotoxic (1; CRC; PHR); Hypotensive (1; CAN); Lactagogue (f; APA; CAN; CRC); Laxative (f; CRC; EFS; WO2); Nervine (f; CRC; EFS; WO2); Pectoral (f; CRC); Sedative (f; PHR; PH2); Tonic (f; CAN; CRC)." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Select Indications (Borage) — Alactea (f; APA; CAN); Arthrosis (1; APA; PHR; PH2); Bronchosis (f; APA; CRC; PHR; PH2); Cancer, breast (f; CRC); Cancer, face (f; CRC); Cardiopathy (1; APA; CRC; JFM; LAF; PHR); Conjunctivosis (f; CRC; JFM); Constipation (f; CRC; EFS; WO2); Corn (f; APA; CRC; JLH); Cough (f; CAN; CRC; HHB; JFM; PH2); Cramp (f; CRC; EFS); Cut (f; CRC); Dermatosis (1; APA; PH2); Diarrhea (1; APA; CRC; JFM); Eczema (f; CRC; LAF); Edema (f; CRC; JFM); Fever (f; CAN; CRC; EFS; FAD; JFM; PHR; PH2; WO2); Inflammation (1; APA; CAN; FAD; LAF; PH2); Insomnia (f; EFS; PHR; PH2); Jaundice (f; CRC; FAD); Kidney Stone (f; APA; CRC); Menopause (1; PHR; PH2); Nephrosis (f; CRC; PHR; PH2); Nervousness (f; PHR; PH2); Neurodermatosis (f; APA; PHR; PH2); Pain (f; CRC; PHR; PH2); Phlebitis (f; PHR; PH2); PMS (1; APA; JAD; LAF; PHR); Rheumatism (1; APA; FAD; PHR; PH2); Sclerosis (f; CRC; JLH); Sore Throat (f; CRC; HHB; PHR; PH2); Swelling (f; CRC; HHB); Tumor (f; CRC); Water Retention (1; APA; FAD; PNC). ^{[HMH Duke]}

Cultivation & Propagation

"A very easily grown plant, succeeding in ordinary garden soil[1], preferring a dry soil[37] and a sunny position[138]. It grows particularly well in loose, stony soils with some chalk and sand[244]. Plants are tolerant of poor dry soils, though much bigger specimens are produced when the plants are growing in better conditions[238]. Tolerates a pH in the range 4.8 to 8.3. Borage is often grown as a culinary plant in the herb garden[1, 7]. Although an annual, it usually maintains itself by self-sowing, sometimes in quite a prolific manner, as long as the soil is disturbed by hoeing etc[14, 188]. Plants often develop mildew when growing in dry conditions or towards the end of the growing season[238]. Flowers are a deeper blue when grown in poorer soils[138]. The flowers are rich in a sweet nectar and are very attractive to bees[7, 14, 20, 108, 244]. The growing plant is a good companion for strawberries, tomatoes, courgettes and most other plants[14, 201, 238]. It is said to deter Japanese beetle and tomato hornworms[238]." ^[PFAF]

"Seed - sow April/May in situ. The plants quickly develop a stout tap-root and do not transplant successfully[238]. The seed can also be sown in situ in the autumn, this will produce larger plants and earlier flowering[4]. The plant usually self-sows prolifically." ^[PFAF]

Dynamic Accumlator: of Selenium(Si) and Potassium (K) ^{[DynamicAccumulators]}

References

1. [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Borago%20officinalis&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Jan 2, 2015; Accessed Jan 5, 2020
2. [DukePhyto] Accessed Feb 6, 2014
3. [MTNS] Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances, by Donald G. Barceloux, MD 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. [PFAF.org] - Material obtained from Plants For A Future Database
   • http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Borago+officinalis, Accessed Jan 27, 2015; January 06, 2020

Borago Sp. - Borage

"Annual [perennial herb], bristly to rough-hairy. Stem: ascending to erect. Leaf: cauline, ± petioled, ovate to oblanceolate, entire. Inflorescence: cymes, terminal, 2–3-flowered; pedicels ± spreading to pendent in fruit. Flower: calyx deep-5-lobed; corolla rotate to bell-shaped, lobes spreading, throat appendages erect, glabrous; stamens exserted, filament base dilated, anthers adherent around style, separating in age. Fruit: nutlets ± erect, 4, stout, obovoid, irregularly tubercled, exposed stipe-like basal attachment scar, rim of attachment scar thickened.
4 species: southern Europe, northern Africa. (Latin: ancient name)" ^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Borago officinalis - Common borage ^[E-flora]

References

• [Jepson] 2013. Borago, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=10458, accessed on Feb 20 2015